Sistema de comércio mongóis

Sistema de comércio mongóis
Juntamente com os missionários ocidentais, os comerciantes do Ocidente (especialmente de Gênova) começaram a chegar aos domínios mongóis, principalmente na Pérsia e, por fim, mais a leste.
Os mongóis eram bastante receptivos a isso. Essa atitude, que facilitou os contatos com a Ásia Ocidental e a Europa, contribuiu para o começo do que poderíamos chamar de uma "história global", ou pelo menos uma história eurasiana.
Os mongóis sempre favoreceram o comércio. Seu estilo de vida nômade fez com que eles reconhecessem a importância do comércio desde os primeiros tempos e, ao contrário dos chineses, tinham uma atitude positiva em relação aos comerciantes e ao comércio.
Os chineses confucionistas professavam desdenhar o comércio e os comerciantes, que consideravam um grupo parasitário que não produzia nada e estava envolvido apenas na troca de mercadorias. Os mongóis alteraram essa atitude e, de fato, procuraram facilitar o comércio internacional [ver também Os mongóis na China: Vida para comerciantes sob a regra mongol].
Na China, por exemplo, os mongóis aumentaram a quantidade de papel-moeda em circulação e garantiram o valor desse papel-moeda em metais preciosos. Eles também construíram muitas estradas & # 151; embora isto fosse apenas parcialmente para promover o comércio & # 151; essas estradas foram usadas principalmente para facilitar o domínio dos mongóis sobre a China.

Mongóis - Economia.
Atividades de subsistência e comerciais. Os mongóis não se concentram mais em criar cavalos, gado, camelos, ovelhas e cabras. Em vez disso, há uma preferência por ovelhas, que têm o maior valor de mercado. Os mongóis continuam a caçar uma variedade de animais: antílopes selvagens, coelhos, faisões, patos, raposas, lobos e marmotas. Nas áreas montanhosas, eles caçavam ursos, veados, marrons e arminhos.
Os mongóis usaram métodos de irrigação e de exploração agrícola durante séculos. Os camponeses mongóis cultivam cevada, trigo, aveia, milho, trigo sarraceno, painço, batata, beterraba sacarina, alho, repolho, cebola, cenoura, sorgo e árvores frutíferas (especialmente maçãs) e criam porcos e ovelhas. Entre os pastores, uma dieta típica consiste principalmente de painço, chá de leite, produtos lácteos, carne de carneiro, kumiss (leite fermentado de égua) e luor (khar arkhi). Da área total de terra no MPR, cerca de 65% é usado para pastagens e forragem. No MPR, a maior parte do trigo é cultivada em fazendas estatais e forragens em coletivos. Com apenas 15% de sua força de trabalho empregada na indústria, o MPR depende de importações da antiga União Soviética para a maioria de seus bens industriais. A maioria dos mongóis que vivem no IMAR são camponeses, com um menor número de pastores e habitantes urbanos. A região é economicamente subsidiada pelo estado chinês.
Artes Industriais. Historicamente, os artesãos mongóis foram honrados e respeitados. Eles trabalhavam em ouro, prata, ferro, madeira, couro e têxteis. Recentemente, as artes aplicadas aumentaram em importância por causa das demandas de exportação e da preferência turística.
Comércio. Historicamente, os mongóis complementavam sua economia por comércio e invasão. Eles nunca desenvolveram uma classe de comerciantes. Em uma base regular, os mongóis comercializavam animais, peles e peles para grãos, chá, seda, tecidos e itens manufaturados com empresas comerciais chinesas e russas. Os mongóis também negociaram uns com os outros durante o naadam, que continua a funcionar no IMAR como uma feira de comércio-casamento-entretenimento. A maior parte do comércio do MPR é com a antiga União Soviética e a Europa Oriental, enquanto a maior parte do comércio do IMAR é com outras províncias chinesas ou com os Estados Unidos e o Japão.
Divisão de trabalho. A divisão do trabalho por gênero é complementar. Entre os pastores, mulheres e crianças leite, agitam a manteiga, cozinham, costuram e realizam tarefas de cuidados infantis, enquanto os homens cuidam do gado, cavalos e camelos, coletam feno e caçam animais selvagens e ocasionalmente lobos. Ambos os sexos tendem e cortam ovelhas. Em ambientes agrícolas, os homens constroem residências e plantam, irrigam, danificam e colhem as plantações, enquanto as mulheres cozinham, limpam, costuram, cuidam das crianças e ajudam no plantio e na colheita. Em ambientes urbanos, homens e mulheres trabalham por um salário. As mulheres são responsáveis ​​pela maior parte das tarefas domésticas e dos cuidados infantis.
Posse de terra. No MPR, a coletivização, depois de fracassar na década de 1920, foi reintroduzida no final dos anos 1950 e continuou sendo o modo predominante de produção. Na China, a coletivização foi introduzida pela primeira vez no final dos anos 50. No início da década de 1980, foi rejeitada em favor do sistema de responsabilidade, que se estendia aos contratos de longo prazo entre agricultores e pastores para usar a terra.

Império Mongol.
Império Mongol - Genghis Khan.
O Império Mongol foi fundado por Genghis Khan, um líder político e militar mongol que às vezes conquistava brutalmente e unia as tribos mongóis. Entre 1208 dC, quando Temujin recebeu seu título como Genghis Khan ("Governante") e 1370 dC, quando o último imperador da Dinastia Yuan da China morreu no exílio, os Mongóis "Khagan" ("Grandes Khans" ou "Imperadores") estabeleceram o maior império contíguo da história mundial.
Império Mongol - a Rota da Seda.
Uma vez estabelecido, o Império Mongol tornou-se um ambiente político pacífico que permitiu o aumento da comunicação e do comércio entre o Ocidente, o Oriente Médio e a Ásia. Essa abertura significava que esses mundos previamente separados poderiam começar a trocar um com o outro.
Império mongol - as viagens de Marco Polo.
Após sua visita ao Império Mongol, Marco Polo voltou para casa a tempo de uma guerra entre as “cidades-estado” de Veneza e Gênova. Polo lutou ao lado de sua cidade natal, Veneza, foi capturado e passou algum tempo em uma prisão de Gênova. Foi na prisão onde Marco Polo escreveu seus famosos diários sobre suas viagens pela Ásia. Em seus escritos, ele explicou que Kublai Khan estava encantado com o Polo, ouviu atentamente tudo o que eles compartilhavam sobre o mundo ocidental e enviou-os de volta como enviados ao Papa. O "Grande Khan" escreveu cartas ao papa e pediu que ele enviasse um grande grupo de homens instruídos para instruir o Império Mongol nos caminhos do Ocidente e do Cristianismo.
Império Mongol - uma oportunidade perdida para o mundo.
Em novembro de 1268, depois de três longos anos de viagem, o Polo chegou a Roma, cartas de Kublai Khan na mão. O único problema é que o papa Clemente IV acabou de morrer e demoraria mais de dois anos para que um novo papa fosse nomeado. E por motivos que não compreendemos completamente da história, o novo papa, Gregory X, não atendeu ao pedido de Kublai Khan. Em vez disso, o papa Gregório enviou presentes, cartas e dois (não 100) frades bem educados de volta ao Grande Khan. No entanto, a caminho da China, eles caíram em uma zona de guerra na periferia do encolhido Império Mongol. Guerreiros muçulmanos, operando sob o sultão do Egito, haviam capturado os centros mais importantes da Armênia e estavam massacrando os habitantes locais. Os Polo's estavam um pouco mais acostumados com os perigos desta rota comercial, mas os frades, temendo por suas vidas, entregaram os presentes e cartas ao Polo e retornaram a Roma sob escolta pelos Cavaleiros Templários.
1 As Viagens de Marco Polo, The Venetian, Livro 1, Capítulo 1, traduzido por W. Marsden em 1818 e reeditado por Thomas Wright em 1854. Uma cópia completa desta tradução está na Biblioteca Britânica e disponível na China. - institut / bibliothek / O% 20Viagens% 20de% 20Marco.

Os presentes do governo.
A nação unida mongol de Genghis Khan formou a fundação do maior império contínuo de terras já conhecido. Um sábio estadista, Gêngis também estabeleceu uma democracia ao estilo mongol que respeitava a diversidade étnica e cultural de seu Império. Seu governo deixou muitos legados duradouros:
A alfabetização e a manutenção de registros oficiais começaram com a primeira escrita mongol escrita, criada pela adaptação do alfabeto do povo uigur da Mongólia ocidental. Conselhos de líderes e um “gabinete” de assessores de diferentes tribos e nações foram realizados para estabelecer políticas e tomar decisões. Leis e instruções, referidas como o Grande Yasa, definiam o comportamento mongol. A liberdade religiosa foi estendida a todas as denominações na crença de que o apoio de líderes religiosos fomentaria boas relações com o povo. As nomeações do Serviço Civil foram baseadas no mérito, independentemente da nacionalidade ou conexões. Passaportes internacionais forneciam proteção para os representantes diplomáticos de qualquer nação, facilitando a passagem segura e o comércio. A comunicação rápida dependia do Yam, um eficiente serviço de mensageiro montado.
Uma infância dura.
O início da vida de Temüjin foi especialmente brutal, vivendo entre os nômades, onde as alianças mudavam com frequência. Esposa arrebatadora, escravidão infantil e assassinato de vingança eram eventos normais.
Antes de Temüjin ter 10 anos de idade, os tártaros - inimigos dos mongóis - envenenaram seu pai. Rejeitando a alegação do menino ao título de seu pai, o clã o abandonou junto com sua mãe e outras crianças.
Eles viveram na pobreza, até que vários anos depois, Temüjin e seu irmão assassinaram seu meio-irmão intimidador e estabeleceram firmemente o jovem Temüjin como chefe da família.
Mulheres da Mongólia.
Duas mulheres influenciaram o início da vida de Temüjin: sua corajosa mãe Höelün e sua brava esposa Börte. Organizar o resgate de Börte do sequestro foi um dos seus primeiros desafios como líder.
Nas tribos nômades, as mulheres cozinhavam, criavam as crianças e administravam os animais e a produção de laticínios: fazendo iogurte, queijo e airag (bebida fermentada) do leite da égua.
As mulheres também contribuíram para o sucesso militar da Mongólia, coletando arcos e flechas e acabando com os inimigos feridos após as batalhas. A filha de Temüjin mais tarde liderou um ataque bem sucedido na Ásia Central.
O que há em um nome?
O nome “Temüjin” foi apropriado pelo pai guerreiro de Genghis Khan de um de seus cativos.
O nome adotado de Temghin para Genghis é escrito e dito de mais de uma maneira. Mongóis e russos chamam-no de ginggis (queixo-ghus). Os ocidentais geralmente usam Gêngis (ghen'-ghus ou jen'-ghus). A primeira parte de seu nome, Chin, significa "forte".
A palavra Khan não é um nome, mas um título, que significa "soberano soberano".
Conquista da China.
Em 1207, os mongóis fizeram sua incursão inicial no estado de Xixia, mas sua primeira tentativa de guerra de cerco foi mal, e a batalha terminou em empate.
Em seguida, os mongóis atacaram o Império Jin, vencendo a guerra de três anos em 1215, depois de cortar suprimentos para expulsar os habitantes de Zhongdu (Pequim).
Em 1226, a segunda tentativa de Genghis Khan de tomar Xi Xia terminou em sua morte. Foi seu neto, Kublai Khan, que finalmente conseguiu subjugar toda a China e colocá-la sob o domínio mongol.
Conquista de Khwarizm.
Gêngis Khan buscou um comércio pacífico com o Império Khwarizm, mas em 1218 o Xá acusou alguns comerciantes muçulmanos de espionagem para os mongóis, executando todos os 450 desses homens.
Depois que as demandas por reparações não foram atendidas, os mongóis se vingaram. Eles saquearam brutalmente Samarcanda, a pérola de Khwarizm e uma importante capital comercial na Rota da Seda. Trinta mil soldados foram massacrados e a população foi expulsa da cidade.
Anos mais tarde, o filho de Genghis Khan, Chagatai, e o neto Hülegü incorporaram as terras de Khwarizm no Império Mongol.
Conquista da Rússia.
As Tribos Kipchak da Ucrânia apoiaram o Império Khwarizm e mataram o genro favorito de Genghis Khan durante a campanha.
Gêngis enviou seu grande general Subotai para se vingar e capturar o fugitivo Khwarizm Shah. Vinte mil mongóis perseguiram sua presa na Rússia, que se comprometeram a ajudar o Kipchak.
Os príncipes russos foram literalmente esmagados sob uma grande plataforma de madeira enquanto Subotai e seus oficiais sentavam-se jantando! As bases para a Horda de Ouro - a conquista da Rússia pelo neto de Gêngis, Batu - haviam sido estabelecidas.
Trechos do Grande Yasa.
Todas as religiões devem ser respeitadas e nenhuma preferência deve ser mostrada a qualquer uma delas.
Mentiras, roubo, traição e adultério são proibidos, e é preciso amar o vizinho como a si mesmo ... Quem violar esses mandamentos deve ser condenado à morte.
Um homem não deve ser considerado culpado se não for pego em flagrante delito ou se não confessar.
Não pronuncie palavras com ênfase, nem use títulos honoríficos. Ao falar com o Khan ou com qualquer outra pessoa, basta usar o nome dele.
Não se comportem tão alto quanto uma montanha. Embora uma montanha seja alta, ela será escalada por animais.
A morte de Genghis Khan.
A lenda envolve a morte de Genghis Khan. Várias fontes mencionam uma queda dolorosa de um cavalo, malária, relâmpago, até mesmo uma emboscada de quarto mortal pela esposa do rei Xi Xia, que Gêngis havia executado.
Ainda mais mistério envolve o enterro de Genghis Khan. Uma conta registra que seu corpo foi levado de volta para a Mongólia e enterrado na Terra sagrada dos antepassados ​​nas Montanhas Khentai, acrescentando que todos que viram o cortejo fúnebre foram mortos.
Durante anos, os exploradores procuraram o túmulo, mas nada foi encontrado.
A história secreta
A mais antiga fonte original mongol revelando detalhes sobre Genghis Khan é A História Secreta dos Mongóis. Provavelmente escrito após sua morte por um ex-membro de sua corte, foi o primeiro livro em roteiro mongol.
O trabalho fornece um relato confiável do início da vida e carreira de Genghis. Seu autor não foge das críticas de Gêngis, nem o retrata de forma heróica.
Perdida por séculos, uma versão escrita em chinês foi descoberta no século XIX. Depois de décadas de pesquisa, os estudiosos conseguiram traduzi-lo em várias línguas modernas.
Religião em Karakorum.
Um templo budista estava no coração de Karakorum. Os mongóis haviam adotado a Escola Tibetana de Budismo, que enfatizava a magia ritual e os encantos em vez da reencarnação - embora ainda praticassem o xamanismo mongol, ou o tengerismo, que se concentrava na adoração do espírito do Eterno Céu Azul.
Uma igreja cristã nestoriana, uma seita trazida para a Ásia por missionários persas no século VI, ficava no outro extremo da cidade. A esposa de Genghis Khan era um Nestorian.
Duas mesquitas ofereciam locais de culto para os muçulmanos, tipicamente comerciantes árabes que viajavam da Rota da Seda para Karakorum.
Contos de Marco Polo.
Membro de uma família de comerciantes italianos, Marco Polo, de 17 anos, deixou sua cidade natal de Veneza em 1271 com o pai e o tio, que já haviam visitado a China.
Seguindo a Rota da Seda, eles chegaram ao palácio de Kublai Khan em Shangdu (Xanadu) quase quatro anos depois, onde permaneceram por duas décadas.
O relato de Marco Polo sobre suas experiências, Il Milione, proporcionou aos europeus o primeiro vislumbre dessas terras exóticas. Mas Marco não escreveu. Ele contou a história a um prisioneiro de prisão, depois de ter sido capturado durante a batalha de Gênova.
O Patriarca Prolífico.
De acordo com um estudo do Jornal Americano de Genética Humana, Genghis Khan pode ser o melhor reprodutor da história. Cerca de oito por cento dos homens da região do antigo Império Mongol carregam cromossomos Y idênticos a Gêngis.
Como isso pôde acontecer? Genghis Khan teve cinco esposas e centenas de concubinas que lhe deram filhos, enquanto suas tropas dizimaram as populações daqueles que estavam fora do patrimônio genético de Genghis.
Seus herdeiros continuaram a construir seu legado genético à custa de genes competitivos. Essa combinação criou uma representação altamente incomum dos genes de Genghis nas populações asiáticas até hoje.
Guerreiros Armored Mongol.
Na batalha, os cavalos eram uma das maiores vantagens de Genghis Khan. Sua velocidade e capacidade de manobra permitiram aos mongóis cavalgar até 100 milhas por dia - muito mais longe do que os exércitos maiores de soldados a pé podiam viajar.
O pequeno mas poderoso cavalo mongol tinha grande resistência e podia sobreviver apenas de gramíneas. Também fornecia comida (leite e carne) para os guerreiros. Os homens de Genghis Khan eram famosos por colocar “hambúrgueres de cavalo” debaixo do cobertor de sela, permitindo que o calor de sua montaria para cozinhar a carne enquanto eles cavalgavam.

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Xnxx vedios.
Trazer de volta o layout antigo com pesquisa de imagens.
sim: a única possibilidade (eu acho) enviar todas as informações para (alienvault.
Desinformação na ordem DVD.
Eu pedi DVD / Blueray "AL. A confidencial" tudo que eu consegui foi Blue ray & amp; um contato # para obter o DVD que não funcionou. Eu encomendo minha semana com Marilyn ____DVD / blue ray & amp; Eu peguei os dois - tolamente, assumi que o mesmo se aplicaria a L. A. ___ETC não. Eu não tenho uma máquina de raio azul ----- Eu não quero uma máquina de raio azul Eu não quero filmes blueray. Como obtenho minha cópia de DVD de L. A. Confidential?
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Existe uma razão para isso, ou uma maneira de reindexar?
consertar o que está quebrado.
Eu não deveria ter que concordar com coisas que eu não concordo com a fim de dizer o que eu acho - eu não tive nenhum problema resolvido desde que comecei a usar o Yahoo - fui forçado a jogar meu antigo mensageiro, trocar senhas, obter novas messenger, disse para usar o meu número de telefone para alertar as pessoas que era o meu código de segurança, receber mensagens diárias sobre o bloqueio de yahoo tentativas de uso (por mim) para quem sabe por que como ele não faz e agora eu obter a nova política aparecer em cada turno - as empresas costumam pagar muito caro pela demografia que os usuários fornecem para você, sem custo, pois não sabem o que você está fazendo - está lá, mas não está bem escrito - e ninguém pode responder a menos que concordem com a política. Já é ruim o suficiente você empilhar o baralho, mas depois não fornece nenhuma opção de lidar com ele - o velho era bom o suficiente - todas essas mudanças para o pod de maré comendo mofos não corta - vou relutantemente estar ativamente olhando - estou cansado do mudanças em cada turno e mesmo aqueles que não funcionam direito, eu posso apreciar o seu negócio, mas o Ameri O homem de negócios pode vender-nos ao licitante mais alto por muito tempo - desejo-lhe boa sorte com sua nova safra de guppies - tente fazer algo realmente construtivo para aqueles a quem você serve - a cauda está abanando o cachorro novamente - isso é como um replay de Washington d c
Eu não deveria ter que concordar com coisas que eu não concordo com a fim de dizer o que eu acho - eu não tive nenhum problema resolvido desde que comecei a usar o Yahoo - fui forçado a jogar meu antigo mensageiro, trocar senhas, obter novas messenger, disse para usar o meu número de telefone para alertar as pessoas que era o meu código de segurança, receber mensagens diárias sobre o bloqueio de yahoo tentativas de uso (por mim) para quem sabe por que isso acontece e agora eu recebo a nova política em cada turno - as empresas costumam pagar muito pela demografia que os usuários fornecem para você ... mais.

Sistema de comércio mongóis
Os Últimos Grandes Desafios Nômades - De Chinggis Khan To Timur.
Autor: Robert Guisepi.
Desde a primeira explosão do poder militar mongol das estepes de.
Ásia Central nas primeiras décadas do século XIII até a morte de Timur em São Paulo.
Em 1405, os nômades da Ásia Central fizeram um último e impressionante retorno ao centro do palco.
na história do mundo. As invasões mongóis terminaram ou interromperam muitos dos grandes.
impérios do período pós-clássico, ao mesmo tempo em que amplia a rede mundial.
que definiu cada vez mais o período. Sob Chinggis Khan - quem uniu o seu.
tribes mongóis e numerosos vizinhos nômades na guerra mais poderosa.
máquina que o mundo tinha visto até então - Ásia central, norte da China e.
Pérsia Oriental foram trazidos sob o domínio mongol. Sob os filhos de Gengis Khan e.
netos, o resto da China, o Tibete, a Pérsia, o Iraque, grande parte da Ásia Menor e tudo o mais.
do sul da Rússia foram adicionados ao vasto império mongol. Embora o império.
foi dividido entre os filhos de Chinggis Khan após sua morte em 1227, os quatro.
canatos ou reinos - que emergiram nas lutas pela sucessão - dominadas.
a maior parte da Ásia pelos próximos um século e meio. As conquistas mongóis e.
os impérios que eles produziram representavam o desafio nômade mais formidável para.
o crescente domínio global dos povos sedentários dos núcleos civilizados.
desde as grandes migrações nômades nos primeiros séculos dC Exceto por.
A garra devastadora, mas de curta duração, de Timur pelo poder no final do dia 14.
século, os povos nômades nunca mais montariam um desafio tão grande e complexo.
varrendo como a dos mongóis.
Na maioria das histórias, as conquistas mongóis foram retratadas como selvagens.
agressão por povos atrasados ​​e bárbaros em muitos dos mais antigos e.
desenvolveram centros de civilização humana. Muito é feito da ferocidade de.
Guerreiros mongóis em batalha, a destruição de grandes cidades, como Bagdá,
em represália pela resistência aos exércitos mongóis, e seus massacres em massa.
inimigos derrotados. Dependendo da civilização de cujas muralhas da cidade a.
historiador registrou a vinda do Mongol "hordas", eles foram descritos como.
o flagelo do Islã, diabos empenhados na destruição do cristianismo,
perseguidores dos budistas, ou profanadores das tradições confucionistas de.
China. Embora eles eram realmente lutadores ferozes e capazes de atos terríveis.
retribuição contra aqueles que se atreveram a desafiá-los, as conquistas dos mongóis.
trouxe muito mais do que morte e devastação.
No auge de seu poder, os domínios dos khans mongóis, ou governantes,
constituiu um vasto reino no qual povos antigamente hostis viviam juntos em paz e.
virtualmente todas as religiões eram toleradas. Do canato da Pérsia no oeste.
para o império do lendário Kubilai Khan no leste, o código da lei primeiro.
promulgada por Chinggis Khan ordenou interação humana. O resultado foi um.
importante nova etapa no contato internacional. Da Europa Oriental ao sul.
A China, comerciantes e viajantes podiam atravessar o mongol bem policiado.
domínios sem medo de suas vidas ou propriedades. A grande faixa do mongol.
território que cobria ou conectava a maior parte da Europa, Ásia e Oriente Médio.
serviu como ponte entre as civilizações do hemisfério oriental. O.
caravanas e embaixadas que cruzavam as terras mongóis transmitiam novos alimentos,
invenções e idéias de uma piscina civilizada para os outros e de civilizado.
piscinas para os povos nômades que serviram como intermediários. Como o islâmico.
expansão que o precedeu, a explosão mongol fez muito para lançar o.
bases para uma interação mais humana em escala global, ampliando e.
intensificando a rede mundial que se construía desde a era clássica.
Esta seção irá explorar as fontes da unidade mongol para um mundo.
império e o curso da expansão mongol. Uma atenção especial será dada.
para a base nômade da máquina de guerra mongol e os padrões de longa data.
de interação nômade-sedentária que moldou o caráter, direção e.
impacto da expansão mongol. Depois de uma discussão da carreira e campanhas de.
Chinggis Khan, seções separadas deste capítulo tratam do Mongol.
conquistar e governar na Rússia e na Europa Oriental, Oriente Médio e China.
O capítulo terminará com uma avaliação do significado do mongol.
interlúdio para o desenvolvimento da civilização e do crescimento de cross-cultural.
interação em escala global. Em ambos os seus destrutivos e construtivos.
papéis, os mongóis geraram grandes mudanças no âmbito do global.
O Império Mongol De Chinggis Khan.
As lendas mongóis sugerem que os antigos ancestrais dos mongóis eram.
caçadores que habitam a floresta, ea caça persistiu como um elemento central no Mongol.
cultura. No momento em que os mongóis são mencionados pela primeira vez nas contas do.
povos sedentários, que negociavam com eles e periodicamente sentiam a fúria de.
seus ataques de raios, a maioria deles adotou o estilo de vida do pastoreio,
Nômades equestres das estepes da Ásia central. De fato, na maioria das maneiras o.
Os mongóis simbolizavam a sociedade e a cultura nômades. Sua sobrevivência dependia do.
bem-estar dos rebanhos de cabras e ovelhas eles dirigiram de uma área de pastagem para.
outro de acordo com o ciclo das estações. Seus alimentos básicos eram os.
carne e produtos lácteos fornecidos pelos seus efectivos, completados na maior parte dos casos por.
grãos e vegetais adquiridos através do comércio com os povos agrícolas sedentários. Eles.
também comercializava couros e laticínios para jóias, armas e tecidos.
fabricados em centros urbanos. Vestiram peles de ovelha, fizeram botas de.
peles de ovelha curtidas, e viviam em barracas de feltro redondas que eram processadas a partir de.
lã cortada de seus animais. Os pôneis durões que eles montavam para arrebanhar.
seus rebanhos, caçar animais selvagens e fazer guerra eram igualmente essenciais para eles.
modo de vida. Tanto as crianças mongóis quanto as masculinas podiam montar assim que elas.
foram capazes de andar. Guerreiros mongóis poderiam literalmente andar por dias a fio,
dormindo e comendo na sela. Os pôneis eram os mais valorizados dos mongóis.
posses. Privados de seus cavalos nas duras e vastas estepes,
tribespeople não poderia sobreviver por muito tempo. Assim, roubar cavalos tornou-se um dos principais.
objeto de ataques interclânicos e tribais e uma ofensa que trouxe morte instantânea.
se os donos originais alcançassem os ladrões.
Como os árabes e outros povos nômades que encontramos, o básico.
unidade da sociedade mongol era a tribo, que foi dividida em clãs relacionados com parentesco.
cujos membros acamparam e reuniram em uma base regular. Quando ameaçado.
por inimigos externos ou em preparação para ataques a outros nômades ou invasões.
de áreas sedentárias, clãs e tribos poderiam ser combinadas em grande.
confederações. Dependendo das habilidades de seus líderes, essas confederações.
poderiam ser mantidos juntos por meses ou até anos. Mas quando a ameaça aconteceu.
Passado ou o ataque foi feito, clãs e tribos invariavelmente voltaram para.
seus próprios pastos e acampamentos. Em todos os níveis de líderes organizacionais.
foram eleitos pelos homens livres do grupo. Embora as mulheres se exercitassem.
influência considerável dentro da família e tinha o direito de ser ouvido.
conselhos tribais, os homens dominavam posições de liderança. Os líderes eleitos.
normalmente exibia as qualidades e habilidades essenciais para a sobrevivência.
o ambiente de estepe onde a ação precipitada ou hesitação tímida poderia levar ao.
destruição de parentes e dependentes de um líder.
Coragem em batalha, geralmente evidenciada pela bravura da juventude na caça,
e a capacidade de forjar alianças e atrair dependentes era vital.
habilidades de liderança. Um líder forte poderia rapidamente construir um grande número de seguidores.
chefes de outros clãs e grupos tribais. Alguns desses subordinados podem ser.
rivais derrotados que tinham sido escravizados pelo chefe vitorioso, embora com frequência.
o estilo de vida de mestre e escravo diferia pouco. O líder deve envelhecer?
e fraco ou sofrer severas reversões, seus subordinados leais uma vez o fariam.
rapidamente abandoná-lo. Ele esperava que isso acontecesse e os subordinados sentiram que não.
remorso. Sua sobrevivência e a de seus dependentes dependiam da adesão.
-se a um forte líder tribal.
A criação de um grande guerreiro: a carreira precoce de Gengis Khan.
Os nômades indo-europeus e depois falantes de turcos tinham dominado as estepes.
e representou a principal ameaça para as civilizações sedentárias da Ásia e da Europa.
nos primeiros milênios da história registrada. Mas povos que falam mongol.
línguas gozaram momentos de poder e realmente esculpida regional.
reinos no norte da China nos séculos IV e X dC De fato, no.
início do século XII, o bisavô de Chinggis Khan, Cabul Khan, liderou a.
Aliança mongol que havia ganhado glória ao derrotar um exército enviado contra eles.
o reino Qin do norte da China. Logo após esta vitória, Kabul Khan ficou doente.
e morreu, e seus sucessores não puderam nem derrotar seus inimigos nômades nem.
segure a aliança mongol juntos. Divididos e espancados, os mongóis caíram.
Chinggis Khan, que quando jovem se chamava Temujin, nasceu na década de 1170.
em um dos clãs dissidentes que lutaram pela sobrevivência nas décadas seguintes.
a morte de Kabul Khan. O pai de Temujin era um líder capaz, que conseguiu.
construir um seguimento decente e negociar uma promessa de casamento entre ele.
filho mais velho e a filha de um chefe mongol mais forte. Apenas quando a família.
fortunas parecia estar em ascensão, o pai de Temujin foi envenenado pelo.
agentes de um grupo nômade rival, segundo os relatos mongóis. De repente,
Temujin, que ainda era adolescente, foi empurrado para uma posição de liderança.
Mas a maioria dos chefes que se haviam unido ao pai se recusou.
siga um mero menino, cujas perspectivas de sobrevivência pareciam ser pequenas.
Nos meses que se seguiram, seu acampamento muito reduzido foi ameaçado.
e finalmente atacado por uma tribo rival. Temujin foi feito prisioneiro em 1182,
trancado em um colar de madeira, e levou em humilhação ao acampamento dele.
inimigos. Depois de uma ousada escapada da meia-noite, Temujin se juntou a sua mãe e.
irmãos e encontrou refúgio para o seu pequeno grupo de seguidores no fundo do.
montanhas. Enfrentando o extermínio, Temujin fez o que qualquer líder nômade sensato.
teria feito: ele e seu povo se juntaram ao acampamento de um mongol mais poderoso.
chefe, que já havia sido ajudado pelo pai de Temujin. Com o apoio de.
este poderoso líder, Temujin vingou os insultos do clã que tinha.
escravizou-o e outro que se aproveitou de sua fraqueza para atacar a dele.
acampamento para cavalos e mulheres. Estes sucessos e reputação crescente de Temujin como.
um guerreiro e comandante militar logo conquistou aliados e chefes de clã ansiosos por isso.
juntar-se a um líder com um futuro promissor. Dentro de uma década, o.
Temujin jovem tinha derrotado seus rivais mongóis e derrotou as forças enviadas para.
esmagá-lo pelos tártaros e outros povos nômades. Em 1206, em um kuriltai, ou.
reunião de todos os chefes mongóis, Temujin-renomeado Chinggis Khan - was.
eleito o khaghan, ou governante supremo, das tribos mongóis. Unidos sob um.
líder forte, os mongóis se prepararam para lançar um ataque maciço em um.
Construindo a máquina de guerra mongol.
Os homens das tribos mongóis que elevaram Chinggis Khan a.
a liderança era, em muitos aspectos, guerreiros naturais. Treinado da juventude não só para.
mas também para caçar e lutar, eles eram fisicamente resistentes, móveis e.
acostumado a matar e a morrer. Eles manejavam uma variedade de armas, inclusive.
lanças, machados e maças de ferro. Nenhuma de suas armas era tão desmoralizante.
para forças inimigas como seus poderosos arcos curtos. Um guerreiro mongol poderia disparar um.
tremor de flechas com precisão impressionante sem quebrar o passo dele.
cavalo. Ele poderia acertar soldados inimigos a até 400 metros de distância (comparado a um.
alcance de 250 jardas para o longbow inglês) enquanto carrega para a frente,
Abaixando-se sob o ventre de seu pônei ou inclinando-se sobre o traseiro do cavalo.
recuando das forças superiores. O fato de que os exércitos mongóis eram inteiramente.
a cavalaria significava que possuíam velocidade e mobilidade que eram desmoralizantes.
às forças inimigas. Levando dois ou três cavalos para usar como remontas, Mongol.
os guerreiros podiam passar mais de uma semana no selim e, quando pressionados, cobrir.
80 ou 90 milhas por dia. Eles poderiam atacar antes que seus inimigos se preparassem.
suas defesas, atingir alvos imprevistos, recuar para as estepes depois.
sofrendo reversões temporárias e, de repente, reaparecem em força.
Para um povo cujo estilo de vida gerou mobilidade, coragem física e a.
amor de combate, Chinggis Khan e seus muitos comandantes subordinados capazes trazidos.
organização, disciplina e unidade de comando. As velhas brigas e vendetas.
entre clãs e tribos foram substituídos por lealdade ao khaghan, e.
Energias antes dedicadas a lutas internas eram agora dirigidas à conquista e à conquista.
saqueando os centros civilizados que cercavam as estepes de todos os lados. O.
As forças mongóis foram divididas em exércitos formados por unidades básicas de combate chamadas.
tumes, consistindo de 10.000 cavaleiros. Cada tumen foi dividido em.
unidades de 1000, 100 e 10 guerreiros. Comandantes em cada nível eram responsáveis.
para o treinamento, armamento e disciplina dos cavaleiros sob seu comando.
Os tumores também foram divididos em cavalaria pesada, que carregava lanças e usava.
alguma armadura de metal e cavalaria ligeira, que dependia principalmente da proa e do arco.
capacetes de flecha e couro e cobertura do corpo. Ainda mais levemente armado e.
protegidos eram os grupos de escoteiros que cavalgavam à frente dos exércitos mongóis e,
usando bandeiras e sinal especial de fogo, manteve a força principal informada do.
Gengis Khan também criou uma força de mensageiro separada, cujos corpos eram.
firmemente enfaixado para permitir que eles permaneçam na sela por dias, mudando.
de cavalo a cavalo para levar mensagens urgentes entre o khaghan e o dele.
comandantes. A disciplina militar havia sido assegurada por laços pessoais entre.
comandantes e soldados comuns. Valores mongóis, que fizeram coragem na batalha.
um pré-requisito para a auto-estima masculina também foi reforçado por um código formal.
que ditou a execução imediata de um guerreiro que abandonou sua unidade.
As rápidas execuções de Gengis Khan deixaram pouca dúvida sobre o destino dos traidores.
a sua própria causa ou vira-casacas que abandonaram os comandantes inimigos a seu favor. Dele.
generosidade para enfrentar inimigos também era lendária. O mais famoso dos últimos, a.
homem chamado Jebe, apelidado de & quot; a flecha & quot; ganhou o afeto do khaghan e alto.
postos nos exércitos mongóis, permanecendo firme depois de suas tropas terem sido.
derrotado e sem medo atirando no cavalo de Chinggis Khan debaixo dele.
Uma unidade especial forneceu exércitos mongóis com excelentes mapas das áreas.
eles invadiriam, baseados em grande parte nas informações fornecidas por Chinggis Khan.
extensa rede de espiões e informantes. Novas armas, incluindo uma variedade de.
flechas flamejantes e explodindo, projéteis de pólvora, e depois canhões de bronze,
também foram concebidos para as forças mongóis. No momento em que seus exércitos cavalgaram para o leste e.
oeste em busca de pilhagem e conquista na 2ª década do século XIII,
Os guerreiros de Gengis Khan estavam entre os melhores armados e treinados e mais.
soldados experientes, disciplinados e móveis no mundo.
Conquista: O Império Mongol Sob Chinggis Khan.
Quando ele foi proclamado o khaghan em 1206, Temujin provavelmente ainda não era.
40 anos. At that point, he was the supreme ruler of nearly one-half.
million Mongol tribesmen and the overlord of one to two million more nomadic.
tribesmen who had been defeated by his armies or had voluntarily allied.
themselves with this promising young commander. But Chinggis Khan had much.
greater ambitions. He once remarked that his greatest pleasure in life was.
making war, defeating enemies, forcing ". . . their beloved [to] weep, riding.
on their horses, embracing their wives and daughters." He came to see himself.
and his sons as men marked for a special destiny; warriors born to conquer the.
known world. In 1207, he set out to fulfill this ambition. His first campaigns.
humbled the Tangut kingdom of Xi-Xia in northwest China, whose ruler was.
forced to declare himself a vassal of the khaghan and pay a hefty tribute.
Next the Mongol armies attacked the much more powerful Qin Empire, which the.
Manchu-related Jurchens had established a century earlier in north China.
In these campaigns, the Mongol armies were confronted for the first time.
with large, fortified cities their adversaries assumed could easily withstand.
the assaults of these uncouth tribesmen from the steppes. Indeed, at first the.
Mongol invaders were thwarted by the intricate defensive works that the.
Chinese had perfected over the centuries to deter nomadic incursions. Mas o.
adaptive Mongols, with the help of captured Chinese artisans and military.
commanders, soon devised a whole arsenal of siege weapons. These included.
battering rams, catapults that hurled rocks and explosive balls, and bamboo.
rockets that spread fire and fear in besieged towns.
Chinggis Khan and the early Mongol commanders had little regard for these.
towns, whose inhabitants they regarded as soft and effete. Therefore, when.
resistance was encountered, the Mongols adopted a policy of terrifying.
retribution. Though the Mongols often spared the lives of famed scholars - whom.
they employed as advisors - and artisans with particularly useful skills, towns.
that fought back were usually sacked once they had been taken. The townspeople.
were slaughtered or sold into slavery; their homes, palaces, mosques, and.
temples were reduced to rubble. Towns that surrendered without a fight were.
usually spared this fate, though they were required to pay tribute to their.
Mongol conquerors as the price of their deliverance.
First Assault On The Islamic World; Conquest In China.
Having established a foothold in north China and solidified his empire in.
the steppes, Chinggis Khan sent his armies westward against the Kara-Khitai.
Empire established by a Mongolian-speaking people a century earlier. Having.
overwhelmed and annexed the Kara-Khitai, in 1219 Chinggis Khan sent envoys to.
demand the submission of Muhammad Shah II, the Turkic ruler of the Khwarazm.
Empire to the west. Outraged by the audacity of the still little-known Mongol.
commander, one of Muhammad's subordinates had some of Chinggis Khan's later.
envoys killed and sent the rest with shaved heads back to the khaghan. Estes.
insults, of course, meant war, a war in which the Khwarazm were overwhelmed.
Their great cities fell to the new siege weapons and tactics the Mongols had.
perfected in their north China campaigns. Their armies were repeatedly routed.
in battles with the Mongol cavalry. Again and again, the Mongols used their.
favorite battle tactic in these encounters. Cavalry was sent to attack the.
enemy's main force. Feigning defeat, the cavalry retreated, drawing the.
opposing forces out of formation in the hopes of a chance to slaughter the.
fleeing Mongols. Once the enemy's pursuing horsemen had spread themselves over.
the countryside, the main force of Mongol heavy cavalry, until then concealed,
attacked them in a devastating pincers formation.
Like the Russians, Hungarians, Chinese, and numerous other adversaries,
the Khwarazm never seemed to catch on to these well-executed ruses, and many a.
proud and much larger army was destroyed in the Mongol trap. Within two years,
his once flourishing cities in ruin, his kingdom in Mongol hands, Muhammad.
Shah II, having retreated across his empire, died on a desolate island near.
the Caspian Sea. In addition to greatly enlarging his domains, Chinggis Khan's.
victories meant that he could incorporate tens of thousands of Turkic horsemen.
into his armies. With his forces greatly enlarged by these new recruits, he.
once again turned eastward, where in the last years of his life his armies.
destroyed the Xi-Xia kingdom and overran the Qin Empire of north China. De.
1227, the year of his death, the Mongols ruled an empire that stretched from.
eastern Persia to the North China Sea.
Life Under The Mongol Yoke.
Despite their fury as warriors and the horrible destruction they could.
unleash on those who resisted their demands for submission and tribute, the.
Mongols proved remarkably astute and tolerant rulers. Chinggis Khan himself.
set the standards in this regard, and most of these were followed by his more.
able successors. He was a complex man. He was capable, as we have seen, of.
gloating over the ruin of his enemies, but was also open to new ideas and.
committed to building a world where the diverse peoples of his empire could.
live together in peace. Though illiterate, Chinggis Khan was neither the.
ignorant savage nor the cultureless vandal often depicted in the accounts of.
civilized writers - usually those who had never met him. Once the conquered.
peoples had been subdued, he took a keen interest in their arts and learning,
though he refused to live in their cities. Instead he established a new.
capital at Karakorum on the steppes and summoned the wise and clever from all.
parts of the empire to the lavish palace of tents with gilded pillars where he.
lived with his wives, closest advisors, and personal bodyguards that now.
numbered over a thousand of the best and most loyal troops.
At Karakorum, Chinggis Khan consulted with Confucian scholars about how.
to rule China; with Muslim engineers about how to build siege weapons and.
improve trade with the lands farther west; and with Daoist holy men, whom he.
hoped could provide him with an elixir that would make him immortal. Though he.
himself followed the shamanistic (focused on the propitiation of nature.
spirits) beliefs of his ancestors, all religions were tolerated in his empire.
He was visited by Muslim mullahs, Buddhist and Daoist monks, and Christian.
missionaries. The followers of these faiths, as well as smaller religious.
communities, such as the Jews and Zoroastrians, worshipped without fear of.
persecution throughout his empire.
Chinggis Khan and his advisors sought to establish the basis for lasting.
peace and prosperity in his domains. Drawing on the advice and talents of both.
Muslim and Chinese bureaucrats, an administrative framework was created. UMA.
script was devised for the Mongolian language in order to facilitate record.
keeping and the standardization of laws. Chinggis Khan promulgated a legal.
code that was enforced by a special police force. Much of the code was aimed.
at putting an end to the divisions and quarrels that had so long occupied the.
Mongols. Grazing lands were systematically allotted to different tribes, and.
harsh penalties were established for rustling livestock or stealing horses. Em.
the advice of his Chinese counselors, Chinggis Khan resisted the temptation to.
turn the cultivated lands of north China into a vast grazing area, which of.
course would have meant the destruction of tens of millions of peasants.
Instead he ordered that the farmers be regularly taxed to support his courts.
and future military expeditions.
Above all, the Mongol conquests brought a peace to much of Asia that in.
some areas persisted for generations. In the towns of the empire, handicraft.
production and scholarship flourished and artistic creativity was allowed free.
expression. Chinggis Khan and his successors actively promoted the growth of.
trade and travelers by protecting the caravans that made their way across the.
ancient Asian silk routes and by establishing rest stations for weary.
merchants and fortified outposts for those harassed by bandits. One Muslim.
historian wrote of the peoples within the domains of the khaghan that they.
"enjoyed such a peace that a man might have journeyed from the land of sunrise.
to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head without suffering.
the least violence from anyone." Secure trade routes made for prosperous.
merchants and wealthy, cosmopolitan cities. They also facilitated the spread.
of foods such as sorghum, sugar, citrus fruits, and grapes; inventions such as.
firearms, printing, and windmills; and technues ranging from those involving.
papermaking to those for improving irrigation from one civilization to.
another. Paradoxically, Mongol expansion, which began as a "barbarian" orgy of.
violence and destruction, had become a major force for economic and social.
development and the enhancement of civilized life.
The Death Of Chinggis Khan And The Division Of The Empire.
When the Mongols had moved west to attack Kara Khitai in 1219, support.
was demanded from the vassal king of Xi-Xia. The Tangut ruler had impudently.
responded that if the Mongols were not strong enough to win wars on their own,
they were best advised to refrain from attacking others. In 1226, his wars in.
the west won, Chinggis Khan turned east with an army of 180,000 warriors to.
punish the Tanguts and complete a conquest that he regretted having left.
unfinished over a decade earlier. After routing a much larger Tangut army in a.
battle fought on the frozen waters of the Yellow River, the Mongol armies.
overran Xi-Xia, plundering and burning and mercilessly hunting down any Tangut.
survivors. As his forces closed in on the Tangut capital and last refuge,
Chinggis Khan, who had been injured in a skirmish some months earlier, fell.
grievously ill. After impressing upon his sons the dangers of quarreling among.
themselves for the spoils of the empire, the khaghan died in August of 1227.
With one last outburst of Mongol wrath, this time directed against death.
itself, his body was carried back to Mongolia for burial. The Mongol forces.
escorting the funeral procession hunted down and killed every human and animal.
in its path. As Chinggis Khan had instructed, his armies also treacherously.
slaughtered the unarmed inhabitants of the Tangut capital after a truce and.
surrender had been arranged.
The vast pasturelands the Mongols now controlled were divided between.
Chinggis Khan's three remaining sons and Batu, a grandson and heir of the.
khaghan's recently deceased son Jochi. Towns and cultivated areas like those.
in north China and parts of Persia were considered the common property of the.
Mongol ruling family. A kuriltai was convened at Karakorum, the Mongol.
capital, to select a successor to the great conqueror. In accordance with.
Chinggis Khan's preference, Ogedei, his third son, was elected grand khan.
Though not as capable a military leader as his brothers or nephews, Ogedei was.
a crafty diplomat and deft manipulator, skills much needed if the ambitious.
heads of the vast provinces of the empire were to be kept from each others'
For nearly a decade, Ogedei directed Mongol energies into further.
campaigns and conquests. The areas that were targeted by this new round of.
Mongol expansion paid the price for peace within the Mongol Empire. The fate.
of the most important victims - Russia and eastern Europe, the Islamic.
heartlands, and China - will be the focus of much of the rest of this chapter.
As we shall see, the Mongols were by no means finished with their efforts to.
build a world empire and to alter the course of global history.
The Mongol Drive To The West.
While in pursuit of the Khwarazm ruler, Muhammad Shah II, the Mongols had.
made their first contacts with the rich kingdoms to the west of the steppe.
heartlands of Chinggis Khan's empire. Raids of reconnaissance into Georgia and.
across the Russian steppe convinced the Mongol commanders that the Christian.
lands to the west were theirs for the taking. Russia and Europe were added to.
their agenda for world conquest. The subjugation of these regions became the.
project of the armies of the Golden Horde, which was named after the golden.
tent of the early khans of the western sector of the Mongol Empire. O.
territories of the Golden Horde, which covered much of what is today.
south-central Russia, made up the four great khanates into which the Mongol.
Empire had been divided at the time of Chinggis Khan's death. The khanate to.
the south, called the Ilkhan Empire, claimed the task of completing the.
conquest of the Muslim world that had begun with the invasion of the Khwarazm.
domains. Though neither Europe nor the Islamic heartlands were ultimately.
subdued, Mongol successes on the battlefield and the fury of their assaults.
affected the history of the regions that came under attack, particularly.
Russia and the Islamic world.
The Invasion Of Russia.
In a very real sense the Mongol assault on Russia was a side campaign, a.
chance to fine-tune the war machine and win a little booty while en route to.
the real prize, western Europe. As we saw in Chapter 15, in the first half of.
the 13th century when the Mongol warriors first descended, a more united.
Russia had been divided into numerous petty kingdoms, centered on trading.
cities such as Novgorod and Kiev. By this time Kiev, which had originally.
dominated much of central Russia, had been in decline for some time. As a.
result there was no paramount power to rally Russian forces against the.
invaders. Despite the dire warnings spread by those who had witnessed the.
crushing defeats suffered by the Georgians in the early 1220s, the princes of.
Russia refused to cooperate. They preferred to fight alone and be routed.
In 1236, Chinggis Khan's grandson Batu led a Mongol force of upwards of.
120,000 cavalrymen into the Russian heartlands. From 1237 to 1238 and later in.
1240, these "Tartars," as the Russian peoples called them, carried out the.
only successful winter invasions in Russian history. In fact, the Mongols.
preferred to fight in the winter. The frozen earth provided good footing for.
their horses and frozen rivers gave them access rather than blocking the way.
to their enemies. One after another, the Mongol armies defeated the often much.
larger forces of local nomadic groups and the Russian princes. Cities such as.
Rizan, Moscow, and Vladimir, which resisted the Mongol command to surrender,
were razed to the ground; their inhabitants were slaughtered or led into.
slavery. As a contemporary Russian chronicler observed, "no eye remained to.
weep for the dead." Just as it appeared that all of Russia would be ravaged by.
the Mongols, whom the Russians compared to locusts, Batu's armies withdrew.
The largest cities, Novgorod and Kiev, appeared to have been spared. Russian.
priesti thanked God; the Mongol commanders blamed the spring thaw, which.
slowed the Mongol horsemen and raised the risk of defeat in the treacherous.
Salvation yielded to further disasters when the Mongols returned in force.
in the winter of 1240. In this second campaign, even the great walled city of.
Kiev, which had reached a population of over 100,000 by the end of the 12th.
century, fell. Enraged by Kievan resistance - its ruler had ordered the Mongol.
envoys thrown from the city walls - the Mongols reduced the greatest city in.
Russia to a smoldering ruin. The cathedral of Saint Sophia was spared, but the.
rest of the city was systematically looted and destroyed, its inhabitants.
smoked out and slaughtered. Novgorod again braced itself for the Mongol.
onslaught. Again it was, according to the Russian chroniclers, "miraculously"
spared. In fact it was saved largely due to the willingness of its prince,
Alexander Nevskii, to submit, at least temporarily, to Mongol demands. Dentro.
addition, the Mongol armies were eager to move on to the main event, the.
invasion of western Europe.
Russia In Bondage.
The crushing victories of Batu's armies initiated nearly two and one-half.
centuries of Mongol dominance in Russia. Russian princes were forced to submit.
as vassals of the khan of the Golden Horde and to pay tribute or risk the.
ravages of Mongol raiders. Mongol exactions fell particularly heavily on the.
Russian peasantry, who had to yield up their crops and labor to both their own.
princes and the Mongol overlords. Impoverished and ever fearful of the.
lightning raids of Mongol marauders, the peasants fled to remote areas or.
became, in effect, the serfs (see Chapter 16) of the Russian ruling class in.
return for protection.
The decision on the part of many peasants to become the lifetime laborers.
of the nobility resulted in a major change in the rural social structure of.
Rússia. Until the mid-19th century, the great majority of the population of.
Russia would be tied to the lands they worked and bound to the tiny minority.
of nobles who owned these great estates. Some Russian towns made profits on.
the increased trade Mongol links made possible, and sometimes the gains.
exceeded the tribute they paid to the Golden Horde. No town benefited from the.
Mongol presence more than Moscow. Badly plundered and partially burned in the.
early Mongol assaults, the city was gradually rebuilt and its ruling princes.
steadily swallowed up nearby towns and surrounding villages. After 1328,
Moscow also profited from its status as the tribute collector for the Mongol.
khans. Its princes not only used their position to fill their own coffers,
they annexed further towns as punishment for falling behind on the payment of.
As Moscow grew in strength, the power of the Golden Horde declined.
Mongol religious toleration benefited both the Orthodox church and Moscow. O.
Metropolitan, or head of the Orthodox church, was made the representative of.
all the clergy in Russia, which did much to enhance the church's standing. O.
choice of Moscow as the seat of the Orthodox leaders brought new sources of.
wealth to its princes and buttressed Muscovite claims to be Russia's leading.
city. In 1380, those claims received an additional boost when the princes of.
Moscow shifted from being tribute collectors to being the defenders of Russia.
In alliance with other Russian vassals, they raised an army that defeated the.
forces of the Golden Horde at the battle of Kulikova. Their victory and the.
devastating blows Timur's attacks dealt the Golden Horde two decades later.
effectively broke the Mongol hold over Russia. Mongol forces raided as late as.
the 1450s, and the princes of Muscovy did not formally renounce their vassal.
status until 1480. But from the end of the 14th century, Moscow was the center.
of political power in Russia, and it was armies from Poland and Lithuania that.
posed the main threat to Russian peace and prosperity.
Though much of the Mongolnimpact was negative, their conquest proved in a.
number of ways a decisive turning point in Russian history. In addition to.
their meaning for Moscow and the Orthodox church, Mongol contacts led to.
changes in Russian military organization and tactics and the political style.
of Russian rulers. Claims that the Tartars were responsible for Russian.
despotism, either Tsarist or Stalinist, are clearly overstated. Still, the.
Mongol example may have influenced the desire of Russian princes to centralize.
their control and minimize the limitations placed on their power by the landed.
nobility, the clergy, and wealthy merchants. By far the greatest effects of.
Mongol rule, however, were those resulting from Russia's relative isolation.
from Christian lands farther west. On the one hand, the Mongols protected a.
divided and weak Russia from the attacks of much more powerful kingdoms such.
as Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary as well as the "crusades" of militant.
Christian orders like the Teutonic Knights, which were determined to stamp out.
the Orthodox heresy. On the other hand, Mongol overlordship cut Russia off.
from key transformations in western Europe that were inspired by the.
Renaissance and led ultimately to the Reformation. The Orthodox clergy, of.
course, would have had little use for these influences, but their absence.
severely reduced the options available for Russian political, economic, and.
Mongol Incursions And The Retreat From Europe.
Until news of the Mongol campaigns in Russia reached European peoples.
such as the Germans and Hungarians farther west, Christian leaders had been.
quite pleased by the rise of a new military power in central Asia. Rumors and.
reports from Nestorian Christians, chafing under what they perceived as the.
persecution of their Muslim overlords, convinced many in western Europe that.
the Mongol Khan was none other than Prester John. Prester John was the name.
given to a mythical, rich and powerful Christian monarch whose kingdom had.
supposedly been cut off from Europe by the Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th.
centuries. Sometimes located in Africa, sometimes in central Asia, Prester.
John loomed large in the European imagination as a potential ally who could.
strike the Muslim enemy from the rear and join up with European Christians to.
destroy their common adversary. The Mongol assault on the Muslim Khwarazm.
Empire appeared to confirm the speculation that Chinggis Khan was indeed.
The assault on Christian, though Orthodox, Russia made it clear that the.
Mongol armies were neither the legions of Prester John nor more partial to the.
Christians than any other people who stood in their way. The rulers of Europe.
were nevertheless slow to realize the magnitude of the threat the Mongols.
posed to western Christendom. When Mongol envoys, one of whom was an.
Englishman, arrived at the court of King Bela of Hungary demanding that he.
surrender a group of nomads who had fled to his domains after being beaten by.
the Mongols in Russia, he contemptuously dismissed them and Batu's demand that.
he submit to Mongol overlordship. Bela reasoned that he was the ruler of a.
powerful kingdom, while the Mongols were just another ragtag band of nomads in.
search of easy plunder. As had so often been the case in the past, his foolish.
refusal to negotiate provided the Mongols with a pretext to invade. Deles.
ambition remained the conquest and pillage of all western Europe. That this.
goal was clearly attainable was demonstrated by the sound drubbing they gave.
to first the Hungarians in 1240 and then to a mixed force of Christian knights.
led by the German ruler, King Henry of Silesia. In both battles, the Mongols.
used the time-tested tactic of retreat and envelopment. In the first.
engagement 70,000 Christian soldiers perished; in the second, 40,000 Europeans.
died, many of them the elite of eastern European knighthood.
These victories left the Mongols free to raid and pillage from the.
Adriatic Sea region in the south to Poland and the German states of the north.
It also left the rest of Europe open to Mongol conquest. Just as the kings and.
clergy of the western portions of Christendom were beginning to fear the.
worst, the Mongol forces disappeared. The death of the Khaghan Ogedei, in the.
distant Mongol capital at Karakorum, forced Batu to withdraw in preparation.
for the struggle for succession that was under way. The campaign for the.
conquest of Europe was never resumed. Perhaps Batu was satisfied with the huge.
empire of the Golden Horde that he ruled from his splendid new capital at.
Sarai; most certainly the Mongols had found richer lands to plunder in the.
following decades in the Muslim empires of the Middle East. Whatever the.
reason, Europe was spared the full fury of the Mongol assault. Do.
civilizations that fringed the steppe homelands of the Mongols, only India.
would be as fortunate.
The Mongol Assault On The Islamic Heartlands.
After the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazm Empire, it was only a matter of.
time before they struck westward against the far wealthier Muslim empires of.
Mesopotamia and North Africa. The conquest of these areas became the main.
project of Hulegu, another grandson of Chinggis Khan and the ruler of the.
Ilkhan portions of the Mongol Empire. As we saw in Chapter 12, one of the key.
results of Hulegu's assaults on the Muslim heartlands was the capture and.
destruction of Baghdad in 1258. The murder of the Abbasid caliph, one of some.
800,000 people who were reported to have been killed in Mongol retribution for.
the city's resistance, brought an end to the dynasty that had ruled the core.
regions of the Islamic world since the middle of the 8th century. A major.
Mongol victory over the Seljuk Turks in 1243 also proved critical to the.
future history of the region, because it opened up Asia Minor to conquest by a.
different Turkic people, the mans, who would be the next great power in.
the Islamic heartlands.
The opening sieges of Hulegu's campaigns had also destroyed the.
Assassins, who had posed a major threat to Sunni Muslims for centuries. O.
hundreds of mountain fortresses of the sect were captured and destroyed. 1.
of these, Alamut, held out for three years despite the Mongol siege engines.
Finally, the leader of the sect was taken prisoner and sent to the khaghan at.
Karakorum. Refused an audience, the last of the Assassins' commanders was.
murdered by his captors.
Despite the removal of the Assassin menace, it is understandable that.
Muslim historians treated the coming of the Mongols as one of the great.
catastrophes in the history of Islam. The murder of the caliph and his family.
left the faithful without a central authority; the sack of Baghdad and.
numerous other cities from central Asia to the shores of the Mediterranean.
devastated the focal points of Islamic civilization. The Mongols had also.
severely crippled Muslim military strength, much to the delight of the.
Christians, especially those like the Nestorians who lived in the Middle East.
Some Christians offered assistance in the form of information; others,
especially the Nestorians from inner Asia, served as commanders in Hulegu's.
armies. One contemporary Muslim chronicler, Ibn al-Athir, found the.
tribulations the Mongols had visited on his people so horrific that he.
apologized to his readers for recounting them and wished that he had not been.
born to witness them. He lamented that:
. . . in just one year they seized the most populous, the most beautiful,
and the best cultivated part of the earth whose inhabitants excelled in.
character and urbanity. In the countries that have not yet been overrun.
by them, everyone spends the night afraid that they may yet appear there,
também. . . . Thus, Islam and the Muslims were struck, at that time, by a.
disaster such as no people had experienced before.
Given these reverses, one can imagine the relief the peoples of the.
Muslim world felt when the Mongols were finally defeated in 1260 by the armies.
of the Mameluk, or slave, dynasty of Egypt at Ain Jalut. Ironically, Baibars,
the commander of the Egyptian forces, and many of his lieutenants had been.
enslaved by the Mongols some years earlier and sold in Egypt, where they rose.
to power through military service. The Muslim victory was won with the rare.
cooperation of the Christians, who allowed Baibars's forces to cross upopposed.
through their much diminished, crusader territories in Palestine. Hulegu was.
in central Asia, engaged in yet another succession struggle, when the battle.
ocorreu. Upon his return, he was forced to reconsider his plans for conquest.
of the entire Muslim world. The Mameluks were deeply entrenched and growing.
stronger; Hulegu was threatened by his cousin Berke, the new khan of the.
Golden Horde to the north, who had converted to Islam. After openly clashing.
with Berke and learning of Baibars's overtures for an alliance with the Golden.
Horde, Hulegu decided to settle for the sizeable kingdom he already ruled,
which stretched from the frontiers of Byzantium to the Oxus River in central.
The Mongol Impact On Europe And The Islamic World.
Though much of what the Mongols wrought on their westward march was.
destructive, some benefits were reaped from their forays into Europe and.
conquests in Muslim areas. By example, they taught new ways of making war and.
impressed on their Turkic and European enemies the effectiveness of gunpowder.
As we have seen, Mongol conquests facilitated trade between the civilizations.
at each end of Eurasia, making possible the exchange of foods, tools, and.
ideas on an unprecedented scale. The revived trade routes brought great wealth.
to traders such as those from north Italy, who set up outposts in the eastern.
Mediterranean, along the Black Sea coast, and as far east as the Caspian Sea.
Because the establishment of these trading empires by the Venetians and.
Genoese provided precedents for the later drives for overseas expansion by.
peoples such as the Portuguese and English, they are of special significance.
in global history.
Perhaps the greatest long-term impact of the Mongol drive to the west was.
indirect and unintended. In recent years a growing number of historians have.
become convinced that the Mongol conquests played a key role in transmitting.
the fleas that carried bubonic plague from central Asia to Europe and the.
Médio Oriente. The fleas may have hitched a ride on the livestock the Mongols.
drove into the new pasturelands won by their conquests or on the rats who.
nibbled the grain transported by merchants along the trading routes the Mongol.
rulers fostered between east and west. Whatever the exact connection, the.
Mongol armies unknowingly paved the way for the spread of the dreaded Black.
Death across the steppes to the Islamic heartlands and from there to most of.
Europe in the mid-14th century. In so doing, they unleashed possibly the most.
fatal epidemic in all human history. From mortality rates higher than half the.
population in some areas of Europe and the Middle East to the economic and.
social adjustments that the plague forced wherever it spread, this accidental,
but devastating, side effect of the Mongol conquests influenced the course of.
civilized development in Eurasia for centuries to come.
The Mongol Interlude In Chinese History.
Soon after Ogedei was elected as the great khan, the Mongol advance into.
China was resumed. Having conquered Xi-Xia, the Mongol commanders now turned.
to the Qin Empire to the east, which had proven the most resistant of all the.
kingdoms assaulted under the leadership of Chinggis Khan. During the Mongol.
campaign, the Chinese Song ruler to the south, seeing a chance to weaken the.
long-standing "barbarian" threat from the northeast, made the mistake of.
allowing Mongol armies to pass through his lands to attack the Qin and even.
sent troops to help with the siege of the Qin capital. By 1234 the Qin had.
been overwhelmed, and the buffer between the Song and the Mongols had been all.
but destroyed. But the Mongols still did not occupy most of the Qin domains or.
attempt to govern them directly. The Song rulers then betrayed the Mongol.
alliance by attempting to garrison some of the cities they had jointly.
besieged. The Mongols returned in force, making short work of the rump state.
of Qin and sweeping onward into the Song-ruled south.
In the campaigns against the Song, the Mongol forces were directed by.
Kubilai Khan, one of the grandsons of Chinggis Khan and a man who would play a.
pivotal role in Chinese history for the next half century. Even under a.
decadent dynasty that had long neglected its defenses, south China proved one.
of the toughest areas for the Mongols to conquer. From 1235 to 1279, the.
Mongols were continually on the march; they fought battle after battle and.
besieged seemingly innumerable, well-fortified Chinese cities. In 1260,
Kubilai assumed the title of the great khan, much to the chagrin of his.
cousins who ruled other parts of the empire. A decade later in 1271, on the.
recommendation of Chinese advisors, he changed the name of the Mongol dynasty.
to the Sinicized Yuan. Though he was still nearly a decade away from fully.
defeating the last-ditch efforts of Confucian advisors and Chinese generals to.
save the Song dynasty, Kubilai ruled most of China, and he now set about the.
task of establishing Mongol control on a more permanent basis.
Kubilai Khan And The Mongol Presence In China.
Kubilai had long been fascinated by Chinese civilization. Even before he.
had begun the conquest of the Song Empire, Kubilai had surrounded himself with.
Chinese advisors, some Buddhist, others Daoist or Confucian. His capital at.
Tatu in the north (present-day Beijing) was built on the site occupied by.
earlier dynasties, and he introduced Chinese rituals and classical music into.
his own court. But he did not then, nor later when he had conquered the south,
listen to the pleas of his Confucian advisors to reestablish the civil service.
exams, which had been discontinued by the Qin rulers. Thus, from the outset,
Kubilai was ambivalent in his attitude toward the ancient civilization that.
was slipping piecemeal under Mongol control. He was determined to preserve.
Mongol separateness and to keep the scholar-gentry from gaining too much power.
-hence the refusal to reintroduce the exams. But he also adopted a Chinese.
life-style, was anxious to follow Chinese precedents, and became a major.
patron of the arts and a promoter of Chinese culture in general. Despite his.
efforts to preserve Mongol identity, Kubilai's choice of China as the site of.
his capital and his deep involvement in Chinese affairs signaled, in effect,
the passing of an overarching command of the far-flung Mongol Empire. From the.
late 13th century onward, the main divisions of the empire were ruled and.
governed as virtually independent realms.
The Mongol Elite.
Kubilai promulgated many laws to preserve the distinction between Mongol.
and Chinese. He forbade Chinese scholars to learn the Mongol script, which was.
used for records and correspondence at the upper levels of the imperial.
government. Mongols were forbidden to marry ethnic Chinese, and only women.
from nomadic families were selected for the imperial harem. Even friendships.
between the two peoples were discouraged. Mongol religious ceremonies and.
customs were retained, and a tent encampment in the traditional Mongol style.
was set up in the imperial city, even though Kubilai usually resided in a.
Chinese-style palace. Kubilai and his successors continued to enjoy key Mongol.
pastimes such as the hunt, and Mongol military forces remained separate from.
In the Yuan era, a new social structure was established in China with the.
Mongols on top and their central Asian nomadic and Muslim allies right below.
them in the hierarchy. These two groups occupied most of the offices at the.
highest levels of the bureaucracy. Beneath them came the north Chinese and.
below them the ethnic Chinese and the minority peoples of the south. Though.
ethnic Chinese from both north and south ran the Yuan bureaucracy at the.
regional and local levels, they could ordinarily exercise power at the top.
only as advisors to the Mongols or other nomadic officials. At all levels,
their activities were scrutinized by Mongol functionaries from an enlarged and.
much-strengthened censors' bureau.
Gender And The Cultural Barriers.
Mongol women in particular remained aloof from Chinese culture, at least.
Chinese culture in its Confucian guise. Like their counterparts in the Tang.
era, some of the wives of the emperors exercised considerable political power.
at the court. Perhaps the most notable in this regard was Kubilai's wife,
Chabi, who not only gave him critical advice on how to counter the schemes of.
his ambitious brother but also promoted the interests of the Buddhists in the.
highest circles of government. At one point, she intervened to frustrate a.
plan to turn cultivated lands near the capital into pasturelands for the.
Mongols' ponies. After the conquest of the Qin, Chabi convinced Kubilai that.
lenient treatment of the survivors of the defeated royal family was the best.
way to reconcile the peoples of north China to Mongol rule.
It was not just the imperial consorts who enjoyed a remarkable degree of.
influence and freedom compared to their Chinese counterparts. Mongol women.
refused to adopt the practice of foot-binding that so constricted the.
activities of Chinese women. They retained their rights to property and.
control within the household and the capacity to move freely about town and.
countryside. No more striking evidence can be found than accounts that.
describe Mongol women riding to the hunt, both with their husbands and at the.
head of their own hunting parties. The daughter of one of Kubilai's cousins.
even went to war, and she refused to marry until one of her many suitors.
proved able to throw her in a wrestling match. Unfortunately, the Mongol era.
was too brief to reverse the trends that were lowering the position of Chinese.
women. As neo - Confucianism gained ground under Kubilai's successors, the.
arguments for the confinement of women multiplied.
Mongol Adoption Of Chinese Ways.
Though Kubilai Khan was much more taken with Chinese culture and eager to.
adopt Chinese ways than most of his Mongol followers, those who settled down.
in China invariably became Sinified to varying degrees. This was perhaps.
inevitable when one considers that at most there were only a few hundred.
thousand Mongols residing in the midst of a Chinese population of perhaps 90.
milhão. Much to the dismay of Mongol purists fresh from the steppes, Kubilai.
modeled much at his capital and court at Tatu after Chinese precedents. Dele.
palace was laid out like those of Chinese emperors and made up primarily of.
Chinese-style buildings, despite the tents in the parklands and altars for.
sacrifices to the Mongol deities. The upper levels of the bureaucracy were.
organized and run, minus the civil service exams, along Tang-Song lines.
Kubilai put the empire on the Chinese calendar, listened to Chinese music, and.
offered sacrifices to his ancestors at a special temple in the imperial city.
He also summoned the best Confucian scholars to give his son a proper Chinese.
education, a move that perhaps more than any other demonstrated his.
determination to civilize his Mongol followers.
Mongol Tolerance And Foreign Cultural Influences.
Like Chinggis Khan and a number of other Mongol overlords, Kubilai had an.
unbounded curiosity and very cosmopolitan tastes. His generous patronage drew.
to his splendid court scholars, artists, artisans, and office seekers from.
many lands. Some of the most favored came from regional Muslim kingdoms to the.
east that had also come under Mongol rule. Muslims were included in the second.
highest social grouping, just beneath the Mongols themselves. Persians and.
Turks were admitted to the inner circle of Kubilai's administrators and.
advisors. Muslims designed and supervised the building of his Chinese-style.
imperial city and proposed new systems for the more efficient collection of.
taxes. Persian astronomers imported more advanced Middle Eastern instruments.
for celestial observations, corrected the Chinese calendar, and made some of.
the most accurate maps that the Chinese had ever seen. Muslim doctors ran the.
imperial hospitals and added translations of 36 volumes on Muslim medicine to.
the imperial library. Though some of Kubilai's most powerful advisors were.
infamous for their corrupt ways, most served him well and did much to advance.
Chinese learning and technology through the transmission of texts,
instruments, and weapons from throughout the Muslim world.
In addition to the Muslims, Kubilai welcomed travelers and emissaries.
from many foreign lands to his court. Like his grandfather, Kubilai displayed.
a strong interest in all religions and insisted on toleration in his domains.
Buddhists, Nestorian Christians, Daoists and Latin Christians made their way.
to his court. The most renowned of the latter were members of the Polo family.
from Venice in northern Italy, who traveled extensively in the Mongol Empire.
in the middle of the 13th century. Marco Polo's account of Kubilai Khan's.
court and empire is perhaps the most famous travel account written by a.
Europeu. Marco accepted fantastic tales of grotesques and strange customs,
and he may have cribbed parts of his account from other sources. Still, his.
descriptions of the palaces, cities, and wealth of Kubilai's empire enhanced.
European interest in the "Indies" and helped to inspire efforts by navigators.
like Columbus to find a water route to these fabled lands.
Social Policies And Scholar-Gentry Resistance.
Kubilai's efforts to promote Mongol adaptation to Chinese culture were.
overshadowed in the long run by countervailing measures to preserve Mongol.
separateness. The ethnic Chinese, particularly in the south, who made up the.
vast majority of his subjects were never really reconciled to Mongsl rule.
Despite Kubilai's cultivation of Confucian rituals and his extensive.
employment of Chinese bureaucrats, most of the scholar-gentry regarded the.
Mongol overlord and his successors as uncouthhbarbarians whose policies.
endangered Chinese traditions. As it was intended to do, Kubilai's refusal to.
reinstate the examination route to administrative office prevented Confucian.
scholars from dominating politics. The favoritism he showed Mongol and other.
foreign officials further alienated the scholar-gentry.
To add insult to injury, Kubilai went to great lengths to bolster the.
position of the artisan classes, who had never enjoyed high standing, and the.
merchants, whom the Confucian thinkers had long dismissed as parasites. O.
Mongols had from the outset shown great regard for artisans, often sparing.
them the slaughter meted out to their fellow city dwellers because of their.
useful skills. During the Yuan period in China, merchants also prospered and.
commerce boomed, partly owing to Mongol efforts to improve transportation and.
expand the supply of paper money. The Mongols developed - with amazing speed.
for a people who had no prior experience with seafaring - a substantial navy.
that played a major role in the conquest of the Song Empire. After the.
conquest of China was completed, the great Mongol war fleets were used to put.
down pirates, who threatened river and overseas commerce, and, toward the end.
of Kubilai's reign, for overseas expeditions of conquest and exploration.
Thus, during the Yuan period, artisans and traders enjoyed a level of.
government backing and social status that was never again equaled in Chinese.
Ironically, despite the Mongol's ingrained suspicion of cities and.
sedentary life-styles, both flourished in the Yuan era. The urban expansion.
begun under the Tang and Song dynasties continued, and the Mongol elite soon.
became addicted to the diversions of urban life. Though traditional Chinese.
artistic endeavors, such as poetry and essay writing, languished under the.
Mongols in comparison with their flowering in the Tang-Song eras, popular.
entertainments, particularly musical dramas, flourished. Perhaps the most.
famous of Chinese dramatic works, The Romance of the West Chamber, was written.
in the Yuan period, and dozens of major playwrights wrote for the court, the.
rising merchant classes, and the well-heeled Mongol elite. Actors and.
actresses, who had long been relegated by the Confucian scholars to the.
despised status of "mean people," achieved celebrity and some measure of.
social esteem. All of this rankled the scholar-gentry, who bided their time,
waiting for the chance to restore Confucian decorum and what they believed to.
be the proper social hierarchy for a civilized people like the Chinese.
Initially at least, Kubilai Khan pursued policies toward one social.
group, the peasants, that the scholarly class would have heartily approved. Ele.
issued edicts forbidding Mongol cavalrymen from turning croplands into pasture.
and restored the granary system for famine relief that had been badly.
neglected in the late Song. Kubilai also sought to reduce peasant tax and.
corvee-labor burdens, partly by redirecting peasant payments from local.
non-official tax farmers directly to government officials. He and his advisors.
also formulated a revolutionary plan to establish elementary education at the.
village level. Though the level of learning they envisioned was rudimentary,
such a project - if it had been enacted - would have provided a major.
challenge to the elite-centric educational system that hitherto had dominated.
If the scholar-gentry were upset over reports of the impending.
educational reforms, the peasants grew disgruntled about a further rural.
project that was put into effect. All peasant households were organized into.
50-unit clusters that were intended to enhance peasant cooperation, improve.
farming technues, and increase productivity. Because each cluster was.
supervised by state officials and each household was responsible for reporting.
misdeeds by members of the others, the scheme was also clearly a device for.
asserting state control. Because in practice its control functions were.
favored at the expense of its potential for agrarian improvement, the.
reorganization was increasingly resented by the peasants, whose discontent had.
much to do with the rapid demise of the Yuan dynasty.
The Fall Of The House Of Yuan.
Historians often remark on the seeming contradiction between the military.
prowess of the Mongol conquerors and the short life of the dynasty they.
established in China. Kubilai Khan's long reign encompassed a good portion of.
the nine decades that the Mongols ruled all of China. Already by the end of.
his reign, the dynasty was showing signs of weakening. Song loyalists raised.
the standard of revolt in the south, and popular hostility toward the foreign.
overlords was expressed more and more openly. The Mongol aura of military.
invincibility was badly tarnished by Kubilai's rebuffs at the hands of the.
military lords of Japan and the failure of the expeditions that he sent to.
punish them, first in 1274 and a much larger effort that was mounted in 1280.
The defeats suffered by Mongol forces engaged in similar expeditions to.
Vietnam and Java in this same period further undermined the Mongols' standing.
Kubilai's dissolute life-style in his later years, partly brought on by.
the death of his favorite wife Chabi and, five years later, the death of his.
favorite son, set the tone for a general softening of the Mongol ruling class.
as a whole. Kubilai's successors lacked his capacity for leadership and cared.
little for the tedium of day-to-day administrative tasks. Many of the Muslim.
and Chinese functionaries to whom they entrusted the finances of the empire.
enriched themselves through flagrant graft and corruption. This greatly.
angered the hard-pressed peasantry who had to bear the burden of rising taxes.
and demands for forced labor. The scholar-gentry played on this discontent by.
calling on the people to rise up and overthrow the "barbarian" usurpers.
By the 1350s, the signs of dynastic decline were apparent. Banditry and.
piracy were widespread, and the government's forces were too feeble to curb.
eles. Famines hit many regions and spawned local uprisings that grew to engulf.
large portions of the empire. Secret religious sects, such as the White Lotus.
Society, were formed that were dedicated to the overthrow of the dynasty.
Their leaders' claims that they had magical powers to heal their followers and.
to confound their enemies helped prompt further peasant resistance against the.
Mongols. As had been the case in the past, rebel leaders quarreled and fought.
with each other. For a time chaos reigned as the Yuan regime dissolved, and.
those Mongols who could escape the fury ofpthe mob retreated back into central.
Ásia. The restoration of peace and order came from an unexpected quarter.
Rather than a regional military commander or aristocratic lord, a man from an.
impoverished peasant family, Ju Yuanzhang, emerged to found the Ming dynasty.
that would rule China for most of the next three centuries.
Analysis And Conclusion.
Analysis: The Eclipse Of The Nomadic War Machine.
As the shock waves of the Mongol and Timurid explosions amply.
demonstrated, nomadic incursions into the civilized cores have had an impact.
on global history that far exceeds what one would expect, given the relatively.
small numbers of nomadic peoples and the limited resources of the regions they.
inhabited. From the time of the great Indo-European migrations in the.
formative epoch of civilized development in the 3d and 2d millennia b. c. (see.
Chapters 2, 3 and 4) through the classical and postclassical eras, nomadic.
peoples periodically emerged from their steppe, prairie, and desert fringe.
homelands to invade, often build empires, and settle in the sedentary zones of.
Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas. Their intrusions have significantly altered.
political history by destroying existing polities and even - as in the case of.
Assyria and Harappa - whole civilizations. They have also generated major.
population movements, sparked social upheavals, and facilitated critical.
cultural and economic exchanges across civilizations. As the Mongols' stunning.
successes in the 13th century illustrate, the capacity of nomadic peoples to.
break through the defenses of the much more populous civilized zones and to.
establish control over much richer and more sophisticated peoples arose.
primarily from the advantages the nomads possessed in waging war.
A reservoir of battle-ready warriors and mobility have from ancient times.
proven the key to success for expansion-minded nomads. Harsh environments and.
ongoing intertribal and interclan conflicts for survival within them produced.
tough, resourceful fighters who could live off the land on the march and who.
regarded combat as an integral part of their lives. The horses and camels on.
which pastoral peoples in Eurasia and Sudanic Africa relied gave them a degree.
of mobility that confounded the sedentary peoples who sought to ward off their.
incursions. The mounted warriors of nomadic armies possessed the advantages of.
speed, surprise, and superior intelligence, which was gathered by mounted.
reconnaissance patrols. The most successful nomadic invaders, such as the.
Mongols, also proved willing to experiment with and adapt to technological.
innovations with military applications. Some of these, such as the stirrup and.
various sorts of harnesses, were devised by the nomads themselves. Others,
such as gunpowder and the siege engines - both Muslim and Chinese - that the.
Mongols used to smash the defenses of walled towns, were borrowed from.
sedentary peoples and adapted to the nomads' fighting machines.
Aside from the considerable military advantages that accrued from nomadic.
life-styles and social organization, their successes in war owed much to the.
weaknesses of their adversaries in the sedentary, civilized zones. The great.
empires that provided the main defense for agricultural peoples against.
nomadic incursions were even in the best circumstances diverse and.
overextended polities, in which imperial control - and protection - diminished.
steadily as one moved away from the capital and core provinces. Imperial.
boundaries were usually fluid, and the outer provinces were consistently.
vulnerable to nomadic raids, if not conquest.
Classical and postclassical empires, such as the Egyptian and Han and the.
Abbasid, Byzantine, and Song enjoyed great advantages over the nomads in terms.
of the populations and resources they controlled. But their armies were,
almost without exception, too slow, too low on firepower, and too poorly.
trained to resist large and well-organized forces of nomadic intruders. Dentro.
times of dynastic strength in the sedentary zones, well-defended fortress.
systems and ingenious weapons - such as the cross bow, which could be fairly.
easily mastered by the peasant conscripts - proved quite effective against.
nomadic incursions. Nonetheless, even the strongest dynasties depended heavily.
on "protection" payments to nomad leaders and the divisions among the nomadic.
peoples on their borders for their security. And even the strongest sedentary.
empires were periodically shaken by nomadic raids into the outer provinces.
When the empires weakened or when large numbers of nomads were united under.
able leaders, such as Muhammad and his successors or Chinggis Khan, nomadic.
assaults made a shambles of sedentary armies and fortifications.
In the centuries after the Mongol and Timurid explosions, which in many.
ways represented the apex of nomadic power and influence on world history,
this age-old pattern of interaction between nomads and farming town-dwelling.
peoples was fundamentally transformed. This transformation resulted in the.
growing ability of sedentary peoples to first resist and then dominate nomadic.
peoples, and it marks a major watershed in the history of the human community.
Some of the causes of the shift were immediate and specific. The most critical.
of these was the devastation wrought by the Black Death on the nomads of.
Central Asia in the 14th century. Though the epidemic proved catastrophic for.
large portions of the civilized zones as well, it dealt the relatively sparse.
nomadic populations a blow from which they took centuries to recover. The more.
rapid demographic - relating to population trends - resurgence of the sedentary.
peoples greatly increased their already considerable numerical advantage over.
the nomadic peoples in the following centuries. The combination of this.
growing numerical advantage, which in earlier epochs the nomads had often been.
able to overcome, with key political and economic shifts and technological.
innovations proved critical in bringing about the decline of the nomadic war.
In the centuries after the Mongol conquests, the rulers of sedentary.
states found increasingly effective ways of centralizing their political power.
and mobilizing the manpower and resources of their domains for war. Some.
improvements in this regard were made by the rulers of China and the empires.
of the Islamic belt. But the sovereigns of the nascent states of western.
Europe surpassed all other potentates in advances in these spheres. Mais forte.
control and better organization allowed a growing share of steadily increasing.
national wealth to be channeled toward military ends. The competing rulers of.
Europe also invested heavily in technological innovations with military.
applications, from improved metalworking technues to the development of ever.
more potent gunpowder and firearms. From the 15th and 16th centuries, the.
discipline and training of European armies also improved markedly. With pikes,
muskets, fire drill, and trained commanders, European armies were more than a.
match for the massed nomad cavalry that had so long terrorized sedentary.
With the introduction early in the 17th century of light, mobile field.
artillery into European armies, the nomads' retreat began. States such as.
Russia, which had centralized power on the western European model, as well as.
the man Empire in the eastern Mediterranean and the Qing in China, which.
had shared many of the armament advances of the Europeans, moved steadily into.
the steppe and desert heartlands of the horse and camel nomads. Each followed.
a conscious policy of settling part of its rapidly growing peasant population.
in the areas taken from the nomads. Thus, nomadic populations were not only.
brought under the direct rule of sedentary empires, their pasturelands were.
plowed and planted wherever the soil and water supply permitted.
These trends suggest that the nomadic war machine had been in decline.
long before the new wave of innovation that ushered in the Industrial.
Revolution in the 18th century. But that process sealed its fate. Railways and.
repeating rifles allowed sedentary peoples to penetrate even the most wild and.
remote of the nomadic refuges and subdue even the most determined and fierce.
of nomadic warriors, from the Plains Indians of North America to the bedouin.
of the Sahara and Arabia. The periodic nomadic incursions into the sedentary.
zones, which had reoccurred sporadically for millennia, had come to an end.
Conclusion: The Mongol Legacy and an Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur.
[See Timur The Lame: In 1398 Timur-i Lang's central Asian armies left Delhi.
completely destroyed and India politically fragmented.]
As we have seen, the Mongol impact on the many areas where they raided.
and conquered varied considerably. The sedentary peoples on the farms and in.
the cities, who experienced the fury of their assaults and the burden of their.
tribute exactions, understandably emphasized the destructive side of the.
Mongol legacy. But the Mongol campaigns also decisively influenced the course.
of human history in the ways they altered warfare and the political.
repercussions they generated in invaded areas. Mongol armies, for example,
provided openings for the rise of Moscow as the central force in the creation.
of a Russian state, they put an end to Abbasid and Seljuk power, and they.
opened the way for the Mameluks and the mans. The Mongol Empire promoted.
trade and important exchanges among civilizations, though, as the spread of.
the black death illustrates, the latter were not always beneficial. Mongol.
rule also brought stable, at times quite effective, government and religious.
toleration to peoples over much of Asia. On balance, it can be argued that the.
cost of these by-products of Mongol expansion was far too high. However high.
the price, there can be little doubt that the Mongol interlude changed the.
course of human history in major ways. It represented the most significant.
involvement of nomadic peoples in the development of civilization since the.
transition to sedentary agriculture in the Neolithic epoch.
Just as the peoples of Eurasia had begun to recover from the upheavals.
caused by Mongol expansion, a second nomadic explosion from central Asia.
plunged them again into fear and despair. This time the nomads in question.
were Turks, not Mongols, and their leader, Timur-i Lang or Timur the Lame, was.
from a noble landowning clan, not a tribal, herding background. Timur's was a.
decidedly divided personality. On the one hand, he was a highly cultured.
individual who delighted in the fine arts, lush gardens, and splendid.
architecture, and who could spend days conversing with great scholars such as.
the Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun. On the other, he was a ruthless conqueror,
apparently indifferent to human suffering and capable of commanding his troops.
to commit atrocities on a scale that would not be matched in the human.
experience until the 20th century. Beginning in the 1360s, his armies moved.
out from his base at Samarkand to conquests in Persia, the Fertile Crescent,
India, and southern Russia.
If his empire did not begin to compare with that of the Mongols in size,
he outdid them in the ferocity of his campaigns. In fact, Timur is remembered.
for little more than truly barbaric destruction - for the pyramids of skulls he.
built with the heads of the tens of thousands of people slaughtered after the.
city of Aleppo in Asia Minor was taken, or the thousands of prisoners he had.
massacred as a warning to the citizens of Delhi in north India not to resist.
his armies. In the face of this wanton slcughter, the fact that he spared.
artisans and scientists to embellish his capital city at Samarkand counts for.
little. Unlike the Mongols, his rule brought neither increased trade and.
significant cross-cultural exchanges nor internal peace. Mercifully, his reign.
was as brief as it was violent. After his death in 1405, his empire was pulled.
apart by his warring commanders and old enemies anxious for revenge. With his.
passing, the last great challenge of the steppe nomads to the civilizations of.

The Gifts of Government.
Genghis Khan’s united Mongol nation formed the foundation of the largest continuous land empire ever known. A wise statesman, Genghis also established Mongolian-style democracy that respected the ethnic and cultural diversity of his Empire. His government left many long-lasting legacies:
Literacy and official record-keeping began with the first written Mongolian script, created by adapting the alphabet of the Uighur people of western Mongolia. Councils of leaders and a “cabinet” of advisors drawn from different tribes and nations were held to establish policies and make decisions. Laws and directions , referred to as the Great Yasa, defined Mongol behavior. Religious freedom was extended to all denominations in the belief that the support of religious leaders would foster good relations with the people. Civil Service appointments were based on merit, regardless of nationality or connections. International passports provided protection for the diplomatic representatives of any nation, facilitating safe passage and trade. Rapid communication depended upon the Yam, an efficient mounted messenger service.
A Harsh Childhood.
Temüjin’s early life was especially brutal, living among nomads where alliances shifted frequently. Wife snatching, child slavery, and revenge killing were normal events.
Before Temüjin was 10 years old, the Tatars—enemies of the Mongols—poisoned his father. Rejecting the young boy’s claim to his father’s title, the clan abandoned him along with his mother and other children.
They lived in poverty, until several years later, Temüjin and his brother murdered their bullying half-brother and firmly established young Temüjin as the head of the household.
Mongolian Women.
Two women influenced Temüjin’s early life: his courageous mother Höelün and his brave wife Börte. Organizing Börte’s rescue from kidnapping was one of his first challenges as a leader.
In nomadic tribes, women cooked, raised the children, and managed the animals and dairy production: making yogurt, cheese, and airag (a fermented drink) from mare’s milk.
Women contributed to the Mongol’s military success as well, collecting bows and arrows and finishing off wounded enemies after the battles. Temüjin’s own daughter later led a successful attack in Central Asia.
What’s in a Name?
The name “Temüjin” was appropriated by Genghis Khan’s warrior father from one of his captives.
Temüjin’s adopted name of Genghis is spelled and said in more than one way. Mongolians and Russians call him Chinggis (chin’-ghus). Westerners commonly use Genghis (ghen’-ghus or jen’-ghus). The first part of his name, Chin, means “strong.”
The word Khan is not a name but a title, meaning “sovereign ruler.”
Conquest of China.
In 1207, the Mongols made their initial foray into the state of Xi Xia, but their first attempt at siege warfare went poorly, and the battle ended in a draw.
Next, the Mongols attacked the Jin Empire, winning the three-year war in 1215 after cutting off supplies to starve out the inhabitants of Zhongdu (Beijing).
In 1226, Genghis Khan’s second attempt to take Xi Xia ended in his death. It was his grandson, Kublai Khan, who finally manage to subdue all of China and bring it under Mongol rule.
Conquest of Khwarizm.
Genghis Khan sought peaceful trade with the Khwarizm Empire, but in 1218, the Shah accused some Muslim traders of spying for the Mongols, executing all 450 of these men.
After demands for reparations went unmet, the Mongols took revenge. They brutally sacked Samarkand, the pearl of Khwarizm and an important trading capital on the Silk Road. Thirty thousand soldiers were butchered and the populace was driven out of the city.
Years later, Genghis Khan’s son Chagatai and grandson Hülegü incorporated the lands of Khwarizm into the Mongol Empire.
Conquest of Russia.
The Kipchak Tribes of the Ukraine supported the Khwarizm Empire and killed Genghis Khan’s favorite son-in-law during the campaign.
Genghis sent his great general Subotai to take revenge and capture the fleeing Khwarizm Shah. Twenty thousand Mongols pursued their prey into Russia, which had pledged to aid the Kipchak.
The Russian princes were literally squashed under a large wooden platform while Subotai and his officers sat on it eating dinner! The groundwork for the Golden Horde—the conquest of Russia by Genghis’s grandson Batu—had been laid.
Excerpts from the Great Yasa.
All religions are to be respected and no preference is to be shown to any of them.
Lies, theft, treachery, and adultery are forbidden, and one ought to love one’s neighbor as oneself….Whoever violates these commands is to be put to death.
A man is not to be considered guilty if not caught in the act of a crime, or if he did not confess.
Do not pronounce words with an emphasis, or use honorary titles. When speaking to the Khan or anyone else, simply use his name.
Don’t behave as high as a mountain. Though a mountain is high, it will be climbed by animals.
Genghis Khan’s Death.
Legend surrounds the death of Genghis Khan. Various sources mention a painful fall from a horse, malaria, lightning, even a deadly bedroom ambush by the wife of the Xi Xia king, whom Genghis had executed.
Even more mystery surrounds Genghis Khan’s burial. One account records that his body was carried back to Mongolia and buried in the sacred Land of the Ancestors in the Khentai Mountains, adding that everyone who saw the funeral procession was killed.
For years, explorers have searched for the tomb, but nothing has ever been found.
The Secret History.
The oldest original Mongol source revealing details about Genghis Khan is The Secret History of the Mongols. Likely written after his death by a former member of his court, it was the first book in Mongol script.
The work provides a reliable account of Genghis’s early life and career. Its author doesn’t shy away from criticism of Genghis, nor portray him in a heroic light.
Lost for centuries, a version written in Chinese was discovered in the 19th century. After decades of research, scholars were able to translate it into several modern languages.
Religion in Karakorum.
A Buddhist temple lay at the heart of Karakorum. Mongols had adopted the Tibetan School of Buddhism, which emphasized ritual magic and charms rather than reincarnation—although they still practiced Mongol shamanism, or Tengerism, which focused on worship of the spirit of the Eternal Blue Sky.
A Nestorian Christian church, a sect brought to Asia by Persian missionaries in the sixth century, sat at the far end of town. Genghis Khan’s wife was a Nestorian.
Two mosques provided places of worship for Muslims, typically Arab traders who traveled from the Silk Road to Karakorum.
Marco Polo’s Tales.
A member of a family of Italian merchants, the 17-year-old Marco Polo left his native city of Venice in 1271 with his father and uncle, who had already visited China.
Following the Silk Road, they arrived at Kublai Khan’s palace at Shangdu (Xanadu) nearly four years later, where they remained for two decades.
Marco Polo’s account of his experiences, Il Milione, provided Europeans with their first glimpse into these exotic lands. But Marco didn’t write it. He told the story to a fellow prison inmate, a writer, after being captured during the battle of Genoa.
The Prolific Patriarch.
According to a study by The American Journal of Human Genetics, Genghis Khan may be the most successful breeder in history. Close to eight percent of the men in the region of the former Mongol Empire carry identical y-chromosomes to Genghis.
How could this happen? Genghis Khan had five wives and hundreds of concubines who bore him children, while his troops decimated the populations of those outside Genghis’s gene pool.
His heirs continued to build his genetic legacy at the expense of competitive genes. This combination created a highly unusual representation of Genghis’s genes in Asian populations to this day.
Mongol Armored Warriors.
In battle, horses were one of Genghis Khan’s greatest advantages. Their speed and maneuverability allowed the Mongols to ride up to 100 miles per day—much farther than larger armies of foot soldiers could travel.
The small but powerful Mongol horse had great stamina and could survive solely on grasses. It also provided food (milk and meat) for warriors. Genghis Khan’s men were renowned for sandwiching ground “horse burgers” beneath their saddle blanket, allowing the heat from their mount to cook the meat as they rode.

AP World History - Mongols Study Set.
-decimal system (men divided into groups of 10, 100, 1000 etc.)
-messengers on horseback.
-encountered gun powder while fighting China.
-developed the handgun and cannon and introduced them into Europe.
-use of stirrups; Mongol children could ride as soon as they were able to walk.
-Mongol warriors could ride for days, sleeping and eating in the saddle.
-brilliant leadership, survival skills, natural toughness.
-100% horse-based military - superior at mobilization and speed.
-demanded subjugation and tribute - devastated any place which resisted including mass slaughters of defeated enemies.
-armies were well organized made up of basic fighting units consisting of 10,000 cavalrymen which were further divided into units of 1000, 100 and 10 warriors with commanders at each level responsible for the training, arming and discipline of those under them; extensive use of scouting parties.
-used pincer movement to defeat larger armies.
to his own cause or turncoats who abandoned enemy commanders in his favor. Dele.
generosity to brave foes was also legendary.
-regarded city dwellers as soft and adopted a policy of terrifying retribution when resisted slaughtering townspeople or selling them into slavery.
-those that did not resist were required to pay tribute.
-often spared the lives of famed scholars whom they employed as advisers and artisans; consulted Confucian scholars, Muslim engineers, Daoist holy men.
-incorporated Turkic horsemen into armies.
-refused to live in cities but setup traditional encampments.
-sought to establish the basis for lasting peace and prosperity in his domains.
-all religions were tolerated in his empire.
-did much to lay the foundations for more human interaction on a global scale, extending and.
intensifying the world network that had been building since the classical age.
-actively promoted the growth of trade and travelers by protecting the caravans that made their way across the ancient Asian silk routes and by establishing rest stations for weary.
merchants and fortified outposts for those harassed by bandits.
-Secure trade routes made for prosperous merchants and wealthy, cosmopolitan cities and facilitated the spread of foods, inventions and technological and agricultural technues.
-At all organizational levels leaders were elected by the free males of the group. The elected leaders normally exhibited the qualities and skills that were essential to survival in the steppe environment where rash action or timid hesitation could lead to the.
destruction of a leader's kinsmen and dependents.
-Courage in battle, usually evidenced from youth by bravery in the hunt,
and the capacity to forge alliances and attract dependents were vital.
-Mongol women in particular remained aloof from Chinese culture. Mongol women.
refused to adopt the practice of foot-binding; they retained their rights to property and.
control within the household and the capacity to move freely about town and.
-named Temujin, was born in the 1170s.
-Temujin's father was poisoned by the agents of a rival nomadic group.
-Temujin joined the camp of a more powerful Mongol chieftain, who had once been aided by Temujin's father.
-Temujin's growing reputation as a warrior and military commander soon won him allies and clan chiefs eager to attach themselves to a leader with a promising future.
-Within a decade, the youthful Temujin had defeated his Mongol rivals and routed the forces sent to crush him by the Tartars and other nomadic peoples.
-In 1206, at a kuriltai, or meeting of all of the Mongol chieftains, Temujin - renamed Chinggis Khan - was elected the khaghan, or supreme ruler, of the Mongol tribes.
-United under a strong leader, the Mongols prepared to launch a massive assault on an.
-introduced Chinese rituals and classical music into his own court.
-did not reestablish the civil service exams, which had been discontinued by the Qin rulers, thus was determined to preserve Mongol separateness and to keep the scholar-gentry from gaining too much power.
-adopted a Chinese life-style, was anxious to follow Chinese precedents, and became a major patron of the arts and a promoter of Chinese culture in general.
-Kubilai promulgated many laws to preserve the distinction between Mongol.
and Chinese. He forbade Chinese scholars to learn the Mongol script, which was.
used for records and correspondence at the upper levels of the imperial.
government. Mongols were forbidden to marry ethnic Chinese, and only women.
from nomadic families were selected for the imperial harem. Even friendships.
between the two peoples were discouraged. Mongol religious ceremonies and.
customs were retained, and a tent encampment in the traditional Mongol style.
was set up in the imperial city, even though Kubilai usually resided in a.
Chinese-style palace. Kubilai and his successors continued to enjoy key Mongol.
pastimes such as the hunt, and Mongol military forces remained separate from.
-He established the Yuan dynasty and united China for the first time in 300 years.